SHEIKH AHMED SARHINDI
Sheikh Ahmed was born on June 15, 1564 (971 A.H.) in a town of Sarhind. He got his initial education in religious and esoteric learning from his father. In 1599 A.D. he became a disciple of Khawaja Baqi Billah and got initiated (baiyat) on his hands. After the death of Khawaja Baqi Billah, he became the head of Naqshbandi order and till his death in 1625 A.D. led the movement for the renaissance of Islam.Services of Mujaddid Alf-e-Sani :-Encounter with Hindu Revivalism: The movement of Hindu revivalism was at its peak and it was supported by the Hindu nobles of Akbar’s court. Its power can be gauged from the incident that a Brahmin of Mathra erected a temple from the material of a mosque and when the Muslims resisted it, he uttered some blasphemous words against the Prophet of Islam.Hazrat Mujaddid also recorded in a letter that the Hindus of Thanesar razed a mosque to build a temple. During the holy month Ramazan, food and drinks were sold and served openly while in the Hindu festival of Eikavshi, there were no eating and drinking in public. In the court of Akbar, Hindus were dominant.Emphasis on Tauhid: During this period, the Hindu influence on the Muslims resulted in the forms of Din-i-llahi of Akbar and the Muslim Sufi’s concept of unity of religions. Mujaddid presented the doctrine of Tawhid in its pristine form. He also repudiated the argument that God could adopt the shape of any wordly thing or being.he said: “Ram and Krishan and such like personalities who the Hindus worship are the humble creation of God. They were born of their parents. Ram was the son of Jasereth. Laxman was his brother. He was Sita’s husband. When Ram could not protect his own wife, how could he help others? How can the creator and the creatures be considered as one?”Two Nation Theory: A logical conclusion of Wahdat-ul-wujud was the unity of religions which meant that if all things were alike in reality, all religious must also be one and the same. Mujaddid vehemently refuted the notion of unity of such opposites as Islam and Kufr, Tauhid and shirk, truth and falsehood and worship of one God and idol-worship. He saved Islam from becoming a part of Hinduism and emphatically declared Islam and Kufr as two contradictory and conflicting concepts.Opposition of Akbar’s Religious Policy: Akbar sacrificed the orthodoxy of Islam at the altar of wordly power. According to Professor Muhammad Aslam:“Akbar, following the tradition of Kabir and Nanak adopted a policy of peace unto all’ and by ending the superiority of the Muslims converted India from Dar-us-Salam to a secular state and started meeting openly with the leaders of all religious and nations. Due to this strategy of Akbar, the wellbeing of Islam and the Muslims was damaged which has not been repaired until now.” During his stay in Akbarabad, Mujaddid Alf-e-Sani participated in the meetings of Abul Fazl and Faizi. He tried to convince them by solid arguments. When Mujaddid failed o convert the advisors of Akbar to his views, he influenced the Imperial Court through his like-minded nobles. The result of his efforts was that a reaction set in against the religious policy of Akbar.Curbs on the Influence of Misguided Ulema: Mujaddid placed major responsibility of prevalent vices in the Muslim society on Ulema who, to gain wordly benefits, had become oblivious to the Life Hereafter and propagated evil doctrines. They sanctioned even those beliefs which were against the Quran and Sunnah, and instigated the King to pronounce and practice non-Islamic laws and beliefs. That was the reason that Mujaddid, after crowning of Jahangir repeatly advised his courtier-disciples to protect the King from the influence of misguided Ulema. Significance of Mujaddid’s Work: Mujaddid was the personality who altered the course of history by leading crusade against Din-i-Ilahi and its impurities. It was due to his efforts that the son of irreligious Akbar became the champion of Orthodex Islam. The patronage of Islam under Shahjahan and the crowning of a Sufi King like Aurangzeb. Mujaddid was the first reformer who presented the two nation theory with full force. He declared Islam and Hinduism two distinct ways of life and their conciliation an impossibility. He made the Muslims aware of their separate nationhood and in this way laid the foundation-stone of Pakistan.
Monday, March 30, 2009
Pakistan Resolution by Leaders of Pakistan
PAKISTAN RESOLUTION
The initial proposals for a separate independent state of the Muslims were indeed commendable as these created the atmosphere where a separate and sovereign Muslim state became the talk of the town, rather of the subcontinent. It was now in the dreams and on the tongues of every thinking Muslim. Mr. Jinnah possessed this special style of leadership that he never presented a new proposal unless the people demanded it and he himself by hints and allusions created this demand in the hearts of the people. And now the people were really demanding Pakistan.Background: Before studying Pakistan Resolution, a glance at its background is essential.Two-Nation Theory: The basic reality behind the idea of Pakistan was that Islam possessed a distinct and distinguished civilization which Hinduism failed to annihilate. This fact was repeatedly emphasized that the Muslims were a separate nation.Separate Electorate: The increasing Hindu efforts under the partronage of the British to absorb the Muslims gave an impetus to the Muslim compaign to defend themselves. And they forced the government to concede separate electorate to ensure the protection of their political rights.Nehru Report: Nehru Report shattered the dream of Hindu-Muslim-unity for good and the Muslim leaders, despite all their efforts, failed to pass even the minimum amendments in the Report.Hindu-Muslim Riots: These riots had taken the shape of a prolonged civil war and ended the hopes of a peaceful co-existence of the two nations.Desire For Independence: The Muslims had always longed for independence. They were prepared to cooperate with the Hindus to achieve that end. However, they now came to the conclusion that even after gaining freedom from the British, they would become slaves of the Hindus in an independent united India. So they demanded a separate homeland to rid themselves from the slavery of the British as well as the Hindus.Longing For an Islamic System: The Muslims were conscious of the fact that Islam is a complete code of life. They , therefore, passed the Pakistan Resolution after meditating for many years. The Presidential Address of Quaid-e-Azam: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah , in March 1940, fully explained the two nation theory in his presidential address to the Lahore session: “The problem of India is not of an inter-communal character, but manifestly of an international one, and it must be treated as such.” “It is extremely different to appreciate why our Hindu friend fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism” “Musalmans are a nation according to any definition of a nation, And they must have their homelands, their territory and their State”The Pakistan Resolution: After this sagacious and encouraging speech, Pakistan Resolution was passed. In the beginning, the name of Pakistan was not assigned to the Resolution, but when the Hindu press ridiculed it by naming it “Pakistan Resolution”, Quaid-e-Azam courageously accepted this name. This resolution was moved by A.K Fazl-ul-Haque and Chaudhri Khaliq-uz-Zaman seconded it. Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Sardar Aurangzeb Khan, Sir Abdullah Haroon, Nawab Muhammad Ismail, Qazi Muhammad Isa, I.I.Chundrigar, Begum Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Abdul Hamid Badauni supported this Resolution in their speeches. The next seven years witnessed an arduous struggle of the Muslims of India for achieving their goal of Pakistan.
The initial proposals for a separate independent state of the Muslims were indeed commendable as these created the atmosphere where a separate and sovereign Muslim state became the talk of the town, rather of the subcontinent. It was now in the dreams and on the tongues of every thinking Muslim. Mr. Jinnah possessed this special style of leadership that he never presented a new proposal unless the people demanded it and he himself by hints and allusions created this demand in the hearts of the people. And now the people were really demanding Pakistan.Background: Before studying Pakistan Resolution, a glance at its background is essential.Two-Nation Theory: The basic reality behind the idea of Pakistan was that Islam possessed a distinct and distinguished civilization which Hinduism failed to annihilate. This fact was repeatedly emphasized that the Muslims were a separate nation.Separate Electorate: The increasing Hindu efforts under the partronage of the British to absorb the Muslims gave an impetus to the Muslim compaign to defend themselves. And they forced the government to concede separate electorate to ensure the protection of their political rights.Nehru Report: Nehru Report shattered the dream of Hindu-Muslim-unity for good and the Muslim leaders, despite all their efforts, failed to pass even the minimum amendments in the Report.Hindu-Muslim Riots: These riots had taken the shape of a prolonged civil war and ended the hopes of a peaceful co-existence of the two nations.Desire For Independence: The Muslims had always longed for independence. They were prepared to cooperate with the Hindus to achieve that end. However, they now came to the conclusion that even after gaining freedom from the British, they would become slaves of the Hindus in an independent united India. So they demanded a separate homeland to rid themselves from the slavery of the British as well as the Hindus.Longing For an Islamic System: The Muslims were conscious of the fact that Islam is a complete code of life. They , therefore, passed the Pakistan Resolution after meditating for many years. The Presidential Address of Quaid-e-Azam: Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah , in March 1940, fully explained the two nation theory in his presidential address to the Lahore session: “The problem of India is not of an inter-communal character, but manifestly of an international one, and it must be treated as such.” “It is extremely different to appreciate why our Hindu friend fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism” “Musalmans are a nation according to any definition of a nation, And they must have their homelands, their territory and their State”The Pakistan Resolution: After this sagacious and encouraging speech, Pakistan Resolution was passed. In the beginning, the name of Pakistan was not assigned to the Resolution, but when the Hindu press ridiculed it by naming it “Pakistan Resolution”, Quaid-e-Azam courageously accepted this name. This resolution was moved by A.K Fazl-ul-Haque and Chaudhri Khaliq-uz-Zaman seconded it. Maulana Zafar Ali Khan, Sardar Aurangzeb Khan, Sir Abdullah Haroon, Nawab Muhammad Ismail, Qazi Muhammad Isa, I.I.Chundrigar, Begum Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Abdul Hamid Badauni supported this Resolution in their speeches. The next seven years witnessed an arduous struggle of the Muslims of India for achieving their goal of Pakistan.
History of English Language
History of the English language
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary.Contents[hide] • 1 Proto-English • 2 Old English • 3 Middle English • 4 Early Modern English • 5 Modern English • 6 Historic English text samples • 6.1 Old English • 6.2 Middle English • 6.3 Early Modern English • 6.4 Modern English • 7 See also • 8 References • 9 Bibliography [edit] Proto-EnglishThe languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.Our main source for the culture of the Germanic peoples (the ancestors of the English) in ancient times is Tacitus' Germania. While remaining quite conversant with Roman civilisation and its economy, including serving in the Roman military, they retained political independence. We can be certain that Germanic settlement in Britain was not intensified until the time of Hengist and Horsa in the 5th century, since had the English arrived en-masse under Roman rule, they would have been thoroughly Christianised as a matter of course. As it was, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes arrived as pagans, independent of Roman control.According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around the year 449, Vortigern (or Gwrtheyrn from the Welsh tradition), King of the Britons, invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him in conflicts with the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the southeast of England. Further aid was sought, and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated, and the identification of the tribes with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description [1], especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to the Frisian languages than any of the others.[edit] Old English/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpegFPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=" /wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpegThe first page of the Beowulf manuscript Main article: Old English language The invaders' Germanic language displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages of what became England. The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England (see Jórvík and Danelaw). The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.The period when England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kings, with the assistance of their clergy, was an era in which the Old English language was not only alive, but thriving. Since it was used for legal, political, religious and other intellectual purposes, Old English is thought to have coined new words from native Anglo-Saxon roots, rather than to have "borrowed" foreign words. (This point is made in a standard text, The History of the English Language, by Baugh).The introduction of Christianity added another wave of Latin and some Greek words. The Old English period formally ended with the Norman conquest, when the language was influenced to an even greater extent by the Norman-speaking Normans. The use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern development. According to Lois Fundis [2], "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon', referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof, comes during the reign of Elizabeth I, from a historian named Camden, who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern times".[edit] Middle EnglishMain article: Middle English For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English[citation needed], with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language[citation needed]. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separate from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old Norman or Latin. A large number of Norman words were taken into Old English, with many doubling for Old English words. The Norman influence is the hallmark of the linguistic shifts in English over the period of time following the invasion, producing what is now referred to as Middle English. English was also influenced by the Celtic languages it was displacing, most notably with the introduction of the continuous aspect, a feature found in many modern languages, but developed earlier and more thoroughly in English.[3][4] English spelling was also influenced by Norman in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which did not exist in Norman. The most famous writer from the Middle English period was Geoffrey Chaucer and of his works, The Canterbury Tales is the best known.English literature started to reappear around 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more respectable. The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, were the first English government document to be published in the English language since the Conquest.[5] Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English when he did so in 1362.[6] By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language.[edit] Early Modern EnglishMain article: Early Modern English Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.[edit] Modern EnglishIn 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.[edit] Historic English text samples[edit] Old EnglishBeowulf lines 1 to 11, approximately AD 900Hwæt! Wē Gār-Dena in geārdagum,þēodcyninga, þrym gefrūnon,hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon.Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum,monegum mǣgþum, meodosetla oftēah,egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest wearðfēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre gebād,wēox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þāh,oðþæt him ǣghwylc þāra ymbsittendraofer hronrāde hȳran scolde,gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs gōd cyning!Which, as translated by Francis Gummere, means:Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kingsof spear-armed Danes, in days long sped,we have heard, and what honor the athelings won!Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes,from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore,awing the earls. Since erst he layfriendless, a foundling, fate repaid him:for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve,till before him the folk, both far and near,who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate,gave him gifts: a good king he!Here is a sample prose text, the beginning of The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. The full text can be found at The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, at Wikisource.Ōhthere sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninge, ðæt hē ealra Norðmonna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscaþe be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer ǣnig mon be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste land on ðæt stēorbord, ond þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā giet norþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglau. Þā bēag þæt land, þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lond, hē nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes ond hwōn norþan, ond siglde ðā ēast be lande swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þonan sūðryhte be lande swā swā hē meahte on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr ān micel ēa ūp on þæt land. Ðā cirdon hīe ūp in on ðā ēa for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē from his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond huntum, ond þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ond him wæs āwīdsǣ on þæt bæcbord. Þā Boermas heafdon sīþe wel gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.This may be translated as:Ohthere said to his lord, King Alfred, that he of all Norsemen lived north-most. He quoth that he lived in the land northward along the North Sea. He said though that the land was very long from there, but it is all wasteland, except that in a few places here and there Finns [i.e. Sami] encamp, hunting in winter and in summer fishing by the sea. He said that at some time he wanted to find out how long the land lay northward or whether any man lived north of the wasteland. Then he traveled north by the land. All the way he kept the waste land on his starboard and the wide sea on his port three days. Then he was as far north as whale hunters furthest travel. Then he traveled still north as far as he might sail in another three days. Then the land bowed east (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). But he knew that he waited there for west winds (and somewhat north), and sailed east by the land so as he might sail in four days. Then he had to wait for due-north winds, because the land bowed south (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). Then he sailed from there south by the land so as he might sail in five days. Then a large river lay there up into the land. Then they turned up into the river, because they dared not sail forth past the river for hostility, because the land was all settled on the other side of the river. He had not encountered earlier any settled land since he travelled from his own home, but all the way waste land was on his starboard (except fishers, fowlers and hunters, who were all Finns). And the wide sea was always on his port. The Bjarmians have cultivated their land very well, but they did not dare go in there. But the Terfinn’s land was all waste except where hunters encamped, or fishers or fowlers.
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary.Contents[hide] • 1 Proto-English • 2 Old English • 3 Middle English • 4 Early Modern English • 5 Modern English • 6 Historic English text samples • 6.1 Old English • 6.2 Middle English • 6.3 Early Modern English • 6.4 Modern English • 7 See also • 8 References • 9 Bibliography [edit] Proto-EnglishThe languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.Our main source for the culture of the Germanic peoples (the ancestors of the English) in ancient times is Tacitus' Germania. While remaining quite conversant with Roman civilisation and its economy, including serving in the Roman military, they retained political independence. We can be certain that Germanic settlement in Britain was not intensified until the time of Hengist and Horsa in the 5th century, since had the English arrived en-masse under Roman rule, they would have been thoroughly Christianised as a matter of course. As it was, the Angles, Saxons and Jutes arrived as pagans, independent of Roman control.According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, around the year 449, Vortigern (or Gwrtheyrn from the Welsh tradition), King of the Britons, invited the "Angle kin" (Angles led by Hengest and Horsa) to help him in conflicts with the Picts. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the southeast of England. Further aid was sought, and in response "came men of Ald Seaxum of Anglum of Iotum" (Saxons, Angles and Jutes). The Chronicle talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established seven kingdoms, known as the heptarchy. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated, and the identification of the tribes with the Angles, Saxons and Jutes is no longer accepted as an accurate description [1], especially since the Anglo-Saxon language is more similar to the Frisian languages than any of the others.[edit] Old English/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpegFPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=" /wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg/wiki/File:Beowulf.firstpage.jpegThe first page of the Beowulf manuscript Main article: Old English language The invaders' Germanic language displaced the indigenous Brythonic languages of what became England. The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England (see Jórvík and Danelaw). The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.The period when England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kings, with the assistance of their clergy, was an era in which the Old English language was not only alive, but thriving. Since it was used for legal, political, religious and other intellectual purposes, Old English is thought to have coined new words from native Anglo-Saxon roots, rather than to have "borrowed" foreign words. (This point is made in a standard text, The History of the English Language, by Baugh).The introduction of Christianity added another wave of Latin and some Greek words. The Old English period formally ended with the Norman conquest, when the language was influenced to an even greater extent by the Norman-speaking Normans. The use of Anglo-Saxon to describe a merging of Anglian and Saxon languages and cultures is a relatively modern development. According to Lois Fundis [2], "The first citation for the second definition of 'Anglo-Saxon', referring to early English language or a certain dialect thereof, comes during the reign of Elizabeth I, from a historian named Camden, who seems to be the person most responsible for the term becoming well-known in modern times".[edit] Middle EnglishMain article: Middle English For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English[citation needed], with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language[citation needed]. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separate from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.While the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle continued until 1154, most other literature from this period was in Old Norman or Latin. A large number of Norman words were taken into Old English, with many doubling for Old English words. The Norman influence is the hallmark of the linguistic shifts in English over the period of time following the invasion, producing what is now referred to as Middle English. English was also influenced by the Celtic languages it was displacing, most notably with the introduction of the continuous aspect, a feature found in many modern languages, but developed earlier and more thoroughly in English.[3][4] English spelling was also influenced by Norman in this period, with the /θ/ and /ð/ sounds being spelled th rather than with the Old English letters þ (thorn) and ð (eth), which did not exist in Norman. The most famous writer from the Middle English period was Geoffrey Chaucer and of his works, The Canterbury Tales is the best known.English literature started to reappear around 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo-Norman made it more respectable. The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, were the first English government document to be published in the English language since the Conquest.[5] Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English when he did so in 1362.[6] By the end of that century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language.[edit] Early Modern EnglishMain article: Early Modern English Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardising effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.[edit] Modern EnglishIn 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significant English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.[edit] Historic English text samples[edit] Old EnglishBeowulf lines 1 to 11, approximately AD 900Hwæt! Wē Gār-Dena in geārdagum,þēodcyninga, þrym gefrūnon,hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon.Oft Scyld Scēfing sceaþena þrēatum,monegum mǣgþum, meodosetla oftēah,egsode eorlas. Syððan ǣrest wearðfēasceaft funden, hē þæs frōfre gebād,wēox under wolcnum, weorðmyndum þāh,oðþæt him ǣghwylc þāra ymbsittendraofer hronrāde hȳran scolde,gomban gyldan. Þæt wæs gōd cyning!Which, as translated by Francis Gummere, means:Lo, praise of the prowess of people-kingsof spear-armed Danes, in days long sped,we have heard, and what honor the athelings won!Oft Scyld the Scefing from squadroned foes,from many a tribe, the mead-bench tore,awing the earls. Since erst he layfriendless, a foundling, fate repaid him:for he waxed under welkin, in wealth he throve,till before him the folk, both far and near,who house by the whale-path, heard his mandate,gave him gifts: a good king he!Here is a sample prose text, the beginning of The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan. The full text can be found at The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, at Wikisource.Ōhthere sǣde his hlāforde, Ælfrēde cyninge, ðæt hē ealra Norðmonna norþmest būde. Hē cwæð þæt hē būde on þǣm lande norþweardum wiþ þā Westsǣ. Hē sǣde þēah þæt þæt land sīe swīþe lang norþ þonan; ac hit is eal wēste, būton on fēawum stōwum styccemǣlum wīciað Finnas, on huntoðe on wintra, ond on sumera on fiscaþe be þǣre sǣ. Hē sǣde þæt hē æt sumum cirre wolde fandian hū longe þæt land norþryhte lǣge, oþþe hwæðer ǣnig mon be norðan þǣm wēstenne būde. Þā fōr hē norþryhte be þǣm lande: lēt him ealne weg þæt wēste land on ðæt stēorbord, ond þā wīdsǣ on ðæt bæcbord þrīe dagas. Þā wæs hē swā feor norþ swā þā hwælhuntan firrest faraþ. Þā fōr hē þā giet norþryhte swā feor swā hē meahte on þǣm ōþrum þrīm dagum gesiglau. Þā bēag þæt land, þǣr ēastryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt lond, hē nysse hwæðer, būton hē wisse ðæt hē ðǣr bād westanwindes ond hwōn norþan, ond siglde ðā ēast be lande swā swā hē meahte on fēower dagum gesiglan. Þā sceolde hē ðǣr bīdan ryhtnorþanwindes, for ðǣm þæt land bēag þǣr sūþryhte, oþþe sēo sǣ in on ðæt land, hē nysse hwæþer. Þā siglde hē þonan sūðryhte be lande swā swā hē meahte on fīf dagum gesiglan. Ðā læg þǣr ān micel ēa ūp on þæt land. Ðā cirdon hīe ūp in on ðā ēa for þǣm hīe ne dorston forþ bī þǣre ēa siglan for unfriþe; for þǣm ðæt land wæs eall gebūn on ōþre healfe þǣre ēas. Ne mētte hē ǣr nān gebūn land, siþþan hē from his āgnum hām fōr; ac him wæs ealne weg wēste land on þæt stēorbord, būtan fiscerum ond fugelerum ond huntum, ond þæt wǣron eall Finnas; ond him wæs āwīdsǣ on þæt bæcbord. Þā Boermas heafdon sīþe wel gebūd hira land: ac hīe ne dorston þǣr on cuman. Ac þāra Terfinna land wæs eal wēste, būton ðǣr huntan gewīcodon, oþþe fisceras, oþþe fugeleras.This may be translated as:Ohthere said to his lord, King Alfred, that he of all Norsemen lived north-most. He quoth that he lived in the land northward along the North Sea. He said though that the land was very long from there, but it is all wasteland, except that in a few places here and there Finns [i.e. Sami] encamp, hunting in winter and in summer fishing by the sea. He said that at some time he wanted to find out how long the land lay northward or whether any man lived north of the wasteland. Then he traveled north by the land. All the way he kept the waste land on his starboard and the wide sea on his port three days. Then he was as far north as whale hunters furthest travel. Then he traveled still north as far as he might sail in another three days. Then the land bowed east (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). But he knew that he waited there for west winds (and somewhat north), and sailed east by the land so as he might sail in four days. Then he had to wait for due-north winds, because the land bowed south (or the sea into the land — he did not know which). Then he sailed from there south by the land so as he might sail in five days. Then a large river lay there up into the land. Then they turned up into the river, because they dared not sail forth past the river for hostility, because the land was all settled on the other side of the river. He had not encountered earlier any settled land since he travelled from his own home, but all the way waste land was on his starboard (except fishers, fowlers and hunters, who were all Finns). And the wide sea was always on his port. The Bjarmians have cultivated their land very well, but they did not dare go in there. But the Terfinn’s land was all waste except where hunters encamped, or fishers or fowlers.
History of European Union
History of the European Union
A peaceful Europe- the beginnings of cooperation
1945-1956
The European Union is set up with the aim of ending the frequent and bloody wars between neighbours, which culminated in the Second World War. As of 1950, the European Coal and Steel Community begin to unite European countries economically and politically in order to secure lasting peace. The six founders are Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The 1950s are dominated by a cold war between east and west. Protests in Hungary against the Communist regime are put down by Soviet tanks in 1956; while the following year, 1957, the Soviet Union takes the lead in the space race, when it launches the first man-made space satellite, Sputnik 1. Also in 1957, the Treaty of Rome creates the European Economic Community (EEC), or ‘Common Market’.
1960-1969
The ‘Swinging Sixties’ – a period of economic growth
The 1960s sees the emergence of 'youth culture’, with groups such as The Beatles attracting huge crowds of teenage fans wherever they appear, helping to stimulate a cultural revolution and widening the generation gap. It is a good period for the economy, helped by the fact that EU countries stop charging custom duties when they trade with each other. They also agree joint control over food production, so that everybody now has enough to eat - and soon there is even surplus agricultural produce. May 1968 becomes famous for student riots in Paris, and many changes in society and behavior become associated with the so-called ‘68 generation’.
1970-1979
A growing Community – the first Enlargement
Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Union on 1 January 1973, raising the number of member states to nine. The short, yet brutal, Arab-Israeli war of October 1973 result in an energy crisis and economic problems in Europe. The last right-wing dictatorships in Europe come to an end with the overthrow of the Salazar regime in Portugal in 1974 and the death of General Franco of Spain in 1975. The EU regional policy starts to transfer huge sums to create jobs and infrastructure in poorer areas. The European Parliament increases its influence in EU affairs and in 1979 all citizens can, for the first time, elect their members directly.
1980-1989
The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin Wall
The Polish trade union, Solidarność, and its leader Lech Walesa, become household names across Europe and the world following the Gdansk shipyard strikes in the summer of 1980. In 1981, Greece becomes the 10th member of the EU and Spain and Portugal follow five years later. In 1987 the Single European Act is signed. This is a treaty which provides the basis for a vast six-year programme aimed at sorting out the problems with the free-flow of trade across EU borders and thus creates the ‘Single Market’. There is major political upheaval when, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall is pulled down and the border between East and West Germany is opened for the first time in 28 years, this leads to the reunification of Germany when both East and West Germany are united in October 1990.
1990-1999
A Europe without frontiers
With the collapse of communism across central and eastern Europe, Europeans become closer neighbours. In 1993 the Single Market is completed with the the 'four freedoms' of: movement of goods, services, people and money. The 1990s is also the decade of two treaties, the ‘Maastricht’ Treaty on European Union in 1993 and the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1999. People are concerned about how to protect the environment and also how Europeans can act together when it comes to security and defence matters. In 1995 the EU gains three more new members, Austria, Finland and Sweden. A small village in Luxembourg gives its name to the ‘Schengen’ agreements that gradually allow people to travel without having their passports checked at the borders. Millions of young people study in other countries with EU support. Communication is made easier as more and more people start using mobile phones and the internet.
2000
A decade of further expansion
The Euro is the new currency for many Europeans. 11 September 2001 becomes synonymous with the 'War on Terror' after hijacked airliners are flown into buildings in New York and Washington. EU countries begin to work much more closely together to fight crime. The political divisions between east and west Europe are finally declared healed when no fewer than 10 new countries join the EU in 2004. Many people think that it is time for Europe to have a constitution but what sort of constitution is by no means easy to agree, so the debate on the future of Europe rages on.
2004-2007
On the 10-13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans-national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the sixth Parliamentary election was a second victory for the European People's Party-European Democrats group. It also saw the lowest voter turnout of 45.5%, the second time it had fallen below 50%.
On 22 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso is approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to the 22 November after the new line up of Commissioners was finally approved.
On the 25 March 2007 the Berlin Declaration was signed (for the 50th anniversary of the Treaties of Rome), it was hoped it would give new impetus to finding a new institutional settlement by the elections in 2009.
The result was the (Reform) Treaty of Lisbon. It amends the existing treaties rather than overwriting them with a single document. The Lisbon Treaty carries many of the innovations from the abandoned Constitution, but has dropped aspects which could be perceived as state-like and 'constitutional', such as the symbols.
A peaceful Europe- the beginnings of cooperation
1945-1956
The European Union is set up with the aim of ending the frequent and bloody wars between neighbours, which culminated in the Second World War. As of 1950, the European Coal and Steel Community begin to unite European countries economically and politically in order to secure lasting peace. The six founders are Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The 1950s are dominated by a cold war between east and west. Protests in Hungary against the Communist regime are put down by Soviet tanks in 1956; while the following year, 1957, the Soviet Union takes the lead in the space race, when it launches the first man-made space satellite, Sputnik 1. Also in 1957, the Treaty of Rome creates the European Economic Community (EEC), or ‘Common Market’.
1960-1969
The ‘Swinging Sixties’ – a period of economic growth
The 1960s sees the emergence of 'youth culture’, with groups such as The Beatles attracting huge crowds of teenage fans wherever they appear, helping to stimulate a cultural revolution and widening the generation gap. It is a good period for the economy, helped by the fact that EU countries stop charging custom duties when they trade with each other. They also agree joint control over food production, so that everybody now has enough to eat - and soon there is even surplus agricultural produce. May 1968 becomes famous for student riots in Paris, and many changes in society and behavior become associated with the so-called ‘68 generation’.
1970-1979
A growing Community – the first Enlargement
Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom join the European Union on 1 January 1973, raising the number of member states to nine. The short, yet brutal, Arab-Israeli war of October 1973 result in an energy crisis and economic problems in Europe. The last right-wing dictatorships in Europe come to an end with the overthrow of the Salazar regime in Portugal in 1974 and the death of General Franco of Spain in 1975. The EU regional policy starts to transfer huge sums to create jobs and infrastructure in poorer areas. The European Parliament increases its influence in EU affairs and in 1979 all citizens can, for the first time, elect their members directly.
1980-1989
The changing face of Europe - the fall of the Berlin Wall
The Polish trade union, Solidarność, and its leader Lech Walesa, become household names across Europe and the world following the Gdansk shipyard strikes in the summer of 1980. In 1981, Greece becomes the 10th member of the EU and Spain and Portugal follow five years later. In 1987 the Single European Act is signed. This is a treaty which provides the basis for a vast six-year programme aimed at sorting out the problems with the free-flow of trade across EU borders and thus creates the ‘Single Market’. There is major political upheaval when, on 9 November 1989, the Berlin Wall is pulled down and the border between East and West Germany is opened for the first time in 28 years, this leads to the reunification of Germany when both East and West Germany are united in October 1990.
1990-1999
A Europe without frontiers
With the collapse of communism across central and eastern Europe, Europeans become closer neighbours. In 1993 the Single Market is completed with the the 'four freedoms' of: movement of goods, services, people and money. The 1990s is also the decade of two treaties, the ‘Maastricht’ Treaty on European Union in 1993 and the Treaty of Amsterdam in 1999. People are concerned about how to protect the environment and also how Europeans can act together when it comes to security and defence matters. In 1995 the EU gains three more new members, Austria, Finland and Sweden. A small village in Luxembourg gives its name to the ‘Schengen’ agreements that gradually allow people to travel without having their passports checked at the borders. Millions of young people study in other countries with EU support. Communication is made easier as more and more people start using mobile phones and the internet.
2000
A decade of further expansion
The Euro is the new currency for many Europeans. 11 September 2001 becomes synonymous with the 'War on Terror' after hijacked airliners are flown into buildings in New York and Washington. EU countries begin to work much more closely together to fight crime. The political divisions between east and west Europe are finally declared healed when no fewer than 10 new countries join the EU in 2004. Many people think that it is time for Europe to have a constitution but what sort of constitution is by no means easy to agree, so the debate on the future of Europe rages on.
2004-2007
On the 10-13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans-national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the sixth Parliamentary election was a second victory for the European People's Party-European Democrats group. It also saw the lowest voter turnout of 45.5%, the second time it had fallen below 50%.
On 22 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso is approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to the 22 November after the new line up of Commissioners was finally approved.
On the 25 March 2007 the Berlin Declaration was signed (for the 50th anniversary of the Treaties of Rome), it was hoped it would give new impetus to finding a new institutional settlement by the elections in 2009.
The result was the (Reform) Treaty of Lisbon. It amends the existing treaties rather than overwriting them with a single document. The Lisbon Treaty carries many of the innovations from the abandoned Constitution, but has dropped aspects which could be perceived as state-like and 'constitutional', such as the symbols.
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